Biology B Final Review

A comprehensive review of key biological concepts covering DNA, protein synthesis, evolution, and human body systems. This cheat sheet summarizes essential terms and principles for final exam preparation.

Core Principles

DNA structure and function are central to heredity and protein synthesis.
Evolution explains the diversity of life through mechanisms like natural selection.
Human body systems maintain homeostasis through complex interactions.
Mutations can alter genetic information and drive evolutionary change.
Cellular processes like replication and transcription are fundamental to life.

Key Terms

Adenine: A purine base, one of the four nucleobases in DNA and RNA.
Alleles: Different versions of the same gene.
Amino Acids: Building blocks of proteins.
Anticodon: A sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that pairs with a complementary codon on mRNA.
Codon: A sequence of three nucleotides on mRNA that specifies an amino acid or a stop signal.
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic instructions.
Double Helix: The structure of DNA, consisting of two complementary strands.
Frameshift Mutation: Mutation caused by insertions or deletions that shift the reading frame of codons.
Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a functional product, usually a protein.
Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence.
Nitrogen Bases: Components of nucleotides: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil.
Nucleotide: The basic building block of nucleic acids, composed of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
Point Mutation: A mutation affecting only one or a few nucleotides.
Protein Synthesis: The process of creating protein molecules from genetic information.
Purine: A double-ring nitrogenous base (Adenine, Guanine).
Pyrimidine: A single-ring nitrogenous base (Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil).
Replication: The process of duplicating DNA.
RNA: Ribonucleic acid, involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation.
Transcription: The synthesis of RNA from a DNA template.
Translation: The synthesis of protein from an mRNA template.
tRNA: Transfer RNA, carries amino acids to the ribosome during translation.
Uracil: A pyrimidine base found in RNA, pairs with Adenine.
Adaptation: A trait that increases an organism's survival and reproduction.
Artificial Selection: Selective breeding by humans for desired traits.
Biogeography: The study of the geographical distribution of species.
Cladogram: A branching diagram showing evolutionary relationships.
Darwin: Proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
Developmental Biology: The study of the processes of change and differentiation in organisms.
Embryology: The study of embryos and their development.
Evolution: The change in heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.
Fossil Record: The history of life as recorded by the remains or traces of organisms.
Homologous Structure: Structures with similar underlying anatomy due to shared ancestry, but different functions.
Macroevolution: Evolutionary change at or above the species level.
Microevolution: Evolutionary change within a species or small group of organisms, especially over a short period.
Natural Selection: The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Overproduction: Organisms produce more offspring than can possibly survive.
Phylogenetic Tree: A branching diagram illustrating the evolutionary relationships among biological entities.
Selection: The differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.
Speciation: The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.
Variation: Differences in physical or behavioral traits among individuals in a population.
Vestigial Structure: Anatomical feature that no longer seems to have a purpose in the current organism.
Accessory Organs: Organs that assist in digestion but are not part of the digestive tract.
Antagonistic Relationship: A relationship where one factor opposes another (e.g., muscle pairs).
Axons: Long, slender projections of nerve cells that conduct electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body.
Cells: The basic structural, functional, and biological units of all known organisms.
Dendrites: Branch-like extensions of nerve cells that receive signals.
Endocrine: Relating to glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Epididymis: A coiled tube located on the back of the testis where sperm mature and are stored.
Exocrine: Relating to glands that secrete substances onto an epithelial surface or into a duct.
Fallopian Tubes: Tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus, where fertilization typically occurs.
Fertilization: The fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
Glucagon: A hormone that raises blood glucose levels.
Glycogen: A stored form of glucose in animals.
Gonads: Reproductive organs that produce gametes (testes in males, ovaries in females).
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment.
Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands.
Implantation: The process by which a fertilized egg attaches to the uterine wall.
Insulin: A hormone that lowers blood glucose levels.
Negative Feedback: A regulatory mechanism that reduces the stimulus or change.
Neurons: Nerve cells; the fundamental units of the nervous system.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse.
Organs: Structures made of different tissues working together to perform a specific function.
Ovaries: Female gonads that produce eggs and hormones.
Penis: The male external reproductive organ.
Positive Feedback: A regulatory mechanism that amplifies the stimulus or change.
Prostate Gland: A gland in the male reproductive system that produces seminal fluid.
Receptors: Molecules that bind to specific signaling molecules.
Seminiferous Tubules: Tubes within the testes where sperm are produced.
Target Cells: Cells that have specific receptors for a hormone or neurotransmitter.
Testes: Male gonads that produce sperm and hormones.
Tissues: Groups of similar cells that perform a specific function.
Uterus: The female reproductive organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops.
Vagina: The muscular tube connecting the uterus to the outside of the body.
Vas Deferens: Tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.